In these situations the bourgeoisie set out to reform the government along authoritarian lines. French progressive forces played an important role in furthering the international peace movement. Disagreements over social and economic problems and foreign policy precipitated a crisis in the 3-party governing coalition. On May five, 1947, below pressure from domestic and foreign reactionaries, the Communists have been expelled from the government, signaling a swing to the ideal in French politics. The country’s social and political forces have been polarized. Under a Franco-American agreement on financial cooperation, signed in 1948, France received US credits and subsidies amounting to $two,458,000,000 over a 3-year period. In 1948, France also signed a treaty creating the Western Alliance.

The positivists, led by Aulard, Sagnac, and G. In the 1st half of the 19th century French historiography was dominated by the romantic school. The reactionary romantic historians J. de Maistre, L. Bonald, Vicomte de Chateaubriand, J. Michaud, and Comte de Montlosier countered Enlightenment concepts with providentialism and a defense of the Middle Ages and Catholicism. The leading historians of this period, however, had been liberal bourgeois in outlook. Through the prism of their bourgeois theory of classes and class conflict they studied the Middle Ages (A. Thierry, F. Guizot) and the English and French (F. Mignet, A. Thiers) bourgeois revolutions. In the 1830’s a petit bourgeois democratic present emerged in French romanticism.

The presence of lots of “middle strata” strengthened the influence of the social reformist and leftist bourgeois parties and factions. Amidst intensified class struggle, the Radicals came to power in 1902, having organized themselves the year just before into the Republican Party of Radicals and Radical Socialists.

individuals

• The February Revolution of 1917 in Russia reinforced the revolutionary ferment in France.
• French workers responded with good sympathy to the October Socialist Revolution in Russia.
• In June 1917 some 108,000 individuals had been on strike in France, and a peasant movement was coalescing in the south.
• The collapse of an offensive involving Soissons and Reims in the spring of 1917 sparked uprisings in the French Army.
• A revolutionary crisis appeared imminent.

The Commune was suppressed with excellent ferocity. Beneath the Second Empire, France waged endless wars of conquest. Early French successes in the Crimean War (1853–56), the War of Italian Liberation , the Opium War (1856–60), and the colonial war of 1858–62 in Indochina soon gave way to key setbacks.

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Most of the outflow of capital took the kind of state loans and investments in foreign securities. A notable function of usurious French imperialism was the higher level of concentration of bank capital and the fairly low level of production concentration. From 1870 to 1909 the 3 largest French banks—the Crédit Lyonnais, Banque Nationale, and Société Générale—increased their holdings from 627 million francs to five.25 billion francs. Financiers succeeded in drawing massive numbers of individuals into the stock market place, and by 1914 the number of rentiers had reached 2 million.